The research on the causes of antibiotic resistance have been extensively studied over the years, and a great deal of research has been done on the topic. One of the causes outlined in literature is the overuse of antibiotics in an agricultural setting, as explained in the article "Antibiotic Resistance from Down on the Chicken Farm" (Bren). The article explains how the issue began in the 1970s when farmers began to feed their livestock antibiotics. The bacteria develop antibiotic resistance, which can then carry over to humans who eat the livestock (Bren).
Another cause of the problem laid out in the literature available is the overuse and misuse of antibiotics to treat diseases in humans. The article "Last Days of the Wonder Drugs" describes an incident in which a mother demanded antibiotics for an ailment in her child which did not require them. It is incidents like this which help lead to antibiotic resistance in human bacteria (Radetsky). "The Rise of Antibiotic-Resistant Infections" explains that very few new antibiotics have been developed since the 1980s, so as microbes develop resistances to the existing ones, there are no new ones to take their place (Lewis). The misuse of antibiotics is also responsible for the development of antibiotic resistances. In the weeks after the anthrax scare following the September 11, 2001 attacks the sales of the drug Cipro, commonly used in treatment of anthrax, increased significantly. The Cipro was often taken unnecessarily and not in accordance to the prescribed directions which led to many bacterial species native to the body to become resistant to it.
One of the biggest current problems literature is being focused on is antibiotic resistant microbes is in the form of nosocomial, or hospital acquired, infections. A research study on methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Western Australia describes how a growing number of nosocomial infections are caused by a strain of the bacteria S. aureus which has developed a resistance to methicillin, a common antibiotic used to treat bacterial infections (Daily, et al). The emergence of antibiotic resistances is very difficult to predict, because they are part of an evolutionary factor in the bacteria (Courvalin). One particularly harmful organism is Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacteria responsible for tuberculosis. The bacterium used to be highly responsive to many antibiotics, but has recently been discovered to be resistant to many of the antibiotics previously used in its treatment (Devitt). Other research studies done on Pseudomonas aeruginosa, another common nosocomial pathogen, have concluded similar results (Carmeli, et al).
Many works of literature have been written on what is being done to combat the threat of antibiotic resistant bacteria. The two fronts focused on by this literature are how to prevent new emergences of antibiotic resistant bacteria, and the development of new antibiotics to combat the antibiotic resistant microorganisms. The Centers for Disease Control has published a website focusing on the prevention of new strains of antibiotic resistant bacteria emerging. The website contains a collection of press releases that are part of its "Get Smart" campaign against the misuse of antibiotics (cdc.gov/drugresistance/community/), as well as an archive of what they have done over the past several years to combat the issue (cdc.gov/drugresistance/actionplan).
Another major source of literature is in the form of studies done on the uses of various new antibiotics to fight the antibiotic resistant bacteria. Testing includes the use of tigecycline against nosocomial infections (Dowzicky, et al), and the use Kurarinone in the treatment of Streptococcus mutans, Staphylococcus aureus, various Enterococci (Chen, et al). Another research study shows the promises of using Dalbavancin against various antibiotic resistant Staphylococci species. A new class of peptide antibiotics for use in treatment of a large variety of microorganisms is described in a study reported in the journal Acta Biochimica Polonica. A Washington Post article announced the FDA approval of the drug Tygacil in the treatment of various bacterial infections (Kaufman).
Works Cited
"A Public Health Action Plan to Combat Antimicrobial Resistance." cdc.gov. 2005. Centers for Disease Control. 6 October 2005.
"Timeline of antibiotics." Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2005. Answers.com 18 Oct. 2005.
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Bren, Linda "Battle of the Bugs: Fighting antibiotic resistance" FDA Consumer
Magazine. July-August 2002. 28 Sept. 2005
Carmeli, Yehuda et al. "Emergence of Antibiotic-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa:
Comparison of Risks Associated with Different Antipseudomonal Agents"
17 March 1999. American Society for Microbiology
Chen, Li, et al. "Inhibition of Growth of Streptococcus mutans, Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci by Kurarinone, a Bioactive Flavonoid Isolated from Sophora flavescens." Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2005 43: 3574-3575
Courvalin P. "Antimicrobial drug resistance: Prediction is very difficult, especially about the future". Emerg Infect Dis [serial on the Internet]. 2005 Oct [sited 10/5/05]. Available from
Dailey Lynne, et al. "Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Western Australia. Emerg Infect Dis" [serial on the Internet]. 2005 Oct [sited 10/5/05]. Available from
Devitt, Terry. "When Antibiotics quit workingÉ" 1 May 1997. National Institute for Science Education 28 Sept. 2005.
Dubin, Adam. et al. "New Generation of Peptide Antibiotics" 15 Sept. 2005.
Acta Bichimica Polonica. 28 Sept. 2005.
"Get Smart: Know When Antibiotics Work" cdc.gov 2005. Centers for Disease Control. 6 October 2005.
Kaufman, Marc. "FDA Approves New Antibiotic for Resistant Bacteria: Hospital-Acquired Infections Targeted." Washingtonpost.com. 2005. The Washington Post. 6 October 2005.
Lewis, Ricki. "The Rise of Antibiotic-Resistant Infections." FDA Consumer Magazine. 1995. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 6 October 2005.
Lin, Gengrong, Credito, Kim, Ednie, Lois M., Appelbaum, Peter C. "Antistaphylococcal Activity of Dalbavancin, an Experimental Glycopeptide "Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2005 49: 770-772
"Penicillin." Nobelprize.org. 15 Jan 2005. Nobel Foundation. 18 October 2005.
Radetsky, Peter. "Last Days of the Wonder Drugs." Discover. 1998. The Walt Disney Company. 6 October 2005.
Schaefer, Kristina. "Antrax, Cipro and drug resistance: How tactics for fighting an enemy may have lost us a friend." Professional Ethics Report. Published in AAS. Volume XIV No 4. Fall 2001.